1. The First Republic (1792-1804)
Following the aftermaths of the Revolution of 1789 and the abolishment of the monarchy, the First Republic of France is established on September 22 of 1792. The National Convention is made up of the Girondins, who support the bourgeoisie, the Montagnards, who favor a central regime, and the Marais who are positioned in between the two. At their first meeting, the Convention decides to try King Louis XVI for treason, finds him guilty, and executes him on January 21, 1793. In an attempt to defend the cause of the revolutionists, and in hopes of restoring the King's powers before his death, both leftist and conservative forces (the Royalists) support the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) that take place throughout Europe.
The years of 1793-1794 mark the Reign of Terror, a period of mass executions directed by the Montagnards' Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal in an attempt to rid France of counterrevolutionaries. Thousands of people are executed, and over 200,000 arrests are made during the two years of massive uprising. Despite the domestic chaos plaguing France, the government insists on a military draft and preparation for international war. On July 27, 1794, Robespierre, a major leader of the Reign of Terror, is overthrown and executed, but the revered reputation of the French Revolution is drastically diminished throughout Europe.
Louis XVI's execution catalyses extreme resistance throughout much of Europe. The First Coalition against France is formed by Great Britain, Holland, Spain, Austria, and Prussia. After many battles on many lands, the French troops are able to draft peace treaties with Austria, Holland, Prussia, and Spain. In October of 1795, France establishes the new Directory consisting of five men who are chosen by the new legislature, the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. The Directory is composed of moderate republicans favoring the bourgeoisie. According to the revised Constitution, the Directory holds all executive power, and one of the five men is to be replaced each year. The Constitution also calls for a separation of powers and limited suffrage. Also in October of 1795, Napoleon Bonaparte, an emerging military officer, is placed in charge of troops sent to control a royalist riot in Paris. Though 100 men are killed, Napoleon succeeds in controlling the mob, and is soon given command of the French army.
By 1796, French wars continue to infest Europe, and Britain refuses to surrender to French troops. Napoleon launches his Italian Campaign, surprises Austrian troops and attacks successfully, proving to be a strong and influential leader. As Napoleon's popularity and ambition soar, he sets out to destroy British troops by invading Egypt in May of 1798. After some successful battles, the French fleet is destroyed by British troops in August.
Paris hosts an international exposition in September of 1798, but economic conditions remain grim. In the same year, France invades Switzerland. In response, Russia, Austria, Britain, Turkey, Portugal and Naples form the Second Coalition against France. Domestically, France continues to suffer poor economic conditions, and the Directory is plagued by corruption. Napoleon returns to France and conspires to overthrow the Directory through the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9-10, 1799). The "Constitution de l'an VII" grants him the majority of the power and declares him "Premier consul de la République." The Consulate (1799-1804) is thus established and Napoleon is later appointed the first consul for life in 1802. Napoleon's new government is authoritarian with a central administration supported by local ruling powers. Napoleon signs the Concordat with the Pope in 1801, formalizing the Church's presence in France by allowing the State to appoint bishops. Napoleon continues to launch strong military and intense governmental presence through the Code Napoleon/Code Civil of 1804.