By Michael Sweet

Today, Dancesport competition incorporates the samba into its International Latin category, along with the Cha-Cha, Rumba, Jive, and Paso Doble. The Dancesport version of the samba differs drastically from the samba danced by Afro-Brazilians in Brazil, embodying a transatlantic and transcultural redefinition of the codified movement into a new environment. Born out of the rise of Ballroom dance in Europe and the need to distance samba from black culture, the original European translations of samba represented a disinterest in the samba’s true cultural beginning and a desire for capitalistic gain. Throughout the late twentieth century, however, the rise of the Dancesport industry and competition world inspired new codifications of the samba to bring a more representative form of the original Brazilian samba to the competition floor. Progressively, the Dancesport samba of today resembles more closely the choreography, character, and bodily codification of Brazilian samba, although maintaining its translated appearance as athletic, dynamic, and European.

Dancesport and its Roots

Competitive Ballroom Dancing was renamed Dancesport in the 1980s to facilitate an international campaign to win Olympic status (McMains, 1). The term Dancesport itself defines this type of ballroom dancing to be a hybridization of dance (in its artistic and creative definition) and sport (in its competitive and athletic sense). Dancesport athletes today creatively interpret heavily codified, heterosexually partnered dances with a maximum level of bodily precision and physical training. Today, top dancers compete in one or two of the four major categories of Dancesport: International Standard, International Latin, American Smooth, and American Rhythm. The international styles (known informally as Standard and Latin) are sectioned by the International Dancesport Federation (IDSF), standardized by the Imperial Society of Teacher of Dance (ISTD) under a collective syllabus, and competed internationally. The American styles (known colloquially as Smooth and Rhythm) are regulated by the National Dance Council Associates (NDCA) and are competed only in the U.S. Both governing bodies publish regularly updated rankings of both professional and amateur couples and sponsor numerous competitions throughout the year, concluding with World and National championships, respectively.

Partnered dance in the early twentieth century was based on a tradition of improvisation between the heterosexually (and sometimes homosexually) paired individuals who followed a strict lead/follow dichotomy.  In most cases, the man lead the lady thorough their own interpretations and understanding of the music/movements and the lady follows the man’s movement. The early twentieth century, however, gave birth to the commercialization and standardization of Ballroom dance instruction, interpretation, and technique.  The English began this trend, utilizing classic European methods of standardization, rooted in styles like ballet, to lessen improvisation to secure the teaching of dance as a legitimate, solidified occupation. “This tendency to foreground improvisation and playfulness, clearly in evidence at the emergence of the modern ballroom dance industry, is nearly absent from twentieth century social ballroom dance” (McMains, 71). In an effort to create standard technique and variation, the English embarked on what Juliet McMains calls a “crusade” that “ was couched in terns of propriety, morality, and decency, which only thinly veiled the obvious economic concerns: if dancing became a free-form frenzy with no standards or techniques, dance teachers would soon be out of jobs” (McMains, 80). This economically framed effort to standardize partnered dance in the West  encapsulated as English dance standardization began to take scope in 1920 and the Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing added the ballroom sector, later endorsing the English syllabus in 1929 (McMains, 81). From that time on, partnered social and competitive dance improvisation would be met with strict standards of technique and variation instructed and enforced by paid professionals.

Samba’s Brazilian Roots

In contrast, improvisation and personal interpretation of rhythm are core principles behind Latin America’s tradition of dance. Dances such as the Cha-Cha, Rumba, Samba, Mambo, and Salsa (which all have Dancesport equivalents) were born out to of Afro-Caribbean and Afro-Brazilian dance traditions subsequently influenced by West African dance traditions vis a vis the importation of Africans to Latin America as slaves. In Brazil, the Afro-Brazilian slave community used Samba music and dance to form active circles of resistance to colonial suppression of African religion and culture. In addition, these dance practices “served as a crucible for forging a common cultural identity out of the diverse ethnic and linguistic groups yoked together in bondage” (Delgado and Muñoz, 15). Finally, and more importantly, dance in this context offered the chance for personal expression and freedom for enslaved Africans and Afro-Brazilians. Samba expels “ the rapid and extremely complex movements of  African dance in which feet, legs, hips, torso, pelvis, arms hands, head , face, eyes, and tongue mimetic expression that form steps” (Delgado and Muñoz, 12). In conjunction with live drumming and singing, this dance tradition allowed for an elevating, full body and mind expression that triumphed over the injustice of slavery for just one night. For a greater sense of order and dignity, Afro-Brazilian slaves “turned to the two things slavery had not confiscated and used against them: samba and candomblé—music and religion, the end products of centuries of clandestine worship of the African gods. During the slavery period of the Portuguese had banned African religions among blacks…but for the most part they tolerated the all-night sessions of drumming, singing, and dancing that often took place in the slave barracks” (Guillermoprieto, 8). Dancing set them free.

Samba eventually became, and is most famous in Brazil as, the music and dance of communal celebration during the festivals of carnival. Alma Guillermoprieto defines the samba as a dance, musical composition based on a two-by-four beat, and a gathering specifically to dance the samba (15). He openly admits that “Brazilian whites today readily admit that carnival would not have amounted to much had it remained in their hands”, stating that the Portuguese colonizers’ idea of entertainment before Lent was to spray each other with water-filled syringes (23).  Carnival life improved at the end of Pedro II’s reign as a new urban elite supported the abolition of slavery and the incorporation of a more “European” style of carnival that mirrored elaborate satirical carnivals en vogue in Paris and Italy (23).  In wake of Princess Isabel’s 1888 signing of the abolition decree, newly freed blacks were a source of irritation for the conservative elite, and carnival became a heightened time of provocation when their boisterous celebration embodied a battle between the proponents of “civilized” celebration and others supporting integration of “African” celebratory practices (24). One February evening in 1907, a group of artisans and labors of Black, White, and mixed racial background incorporated a “promenade” to their carnival celebration utilizing singing, drumming accompanying flute solos, and women dressed in the latest European fashions. “Here at last was the civilized black carnival the white world had been waiting for” (25). From this original “promenade” emerged the practice of samba processions where rival samba schools would drum, sing, dance in costume, and compete for the best display. Turn of the century technological progressions in audio recording also helped to promote samba music and culture to a broader racial and socio-economic audience. “The whites’ official loathing of black culture had always masked a secret attraction….white love of samba emerged from the closet thanks to gramophone records, first introduced to Brazil in 1900” (26). From this beginning, samba music and culture continues to be spread and celebrated in Brazil and throughout the world through the expanded context of not just carnival, but performance and cross-cultural translation.

Alma Guillermoprieto gives two gendered versions (woman’s and a man’s) of how to samba in his work. For the women, he instructs the reader to “step and hop in place on your right foot as you brush your left foot quickly across. Step in quick succession onto your left, then your right foot. Although your hips will swivel to the right as far as possible, your head and shoulders should remain strictly forward” (37). He states that “the magic of samba lies in the illusion that somebody is moving like crazy from the waist down while an entirely different person is observing the proceedings from the waist up” (37). Guillermoprieto also mentions that arms and smile are essential, as one should “Think of a fine-plumed bird rearranging its wings” and “your smile should be the full-tilt cheer of someone watching her favorite team hit a home run” (38).

In the men’s version he begins, “The first thing is attitude. You should look and feel relaxed, yet vigilant, playful and ready to pounce. A slouching posture is easiest.” He later follows that “Your task is to follow the drums with your feet and spell out their rhythm by flinging your legs as far away as possible from your torso on every beat.” His final steps relate how to approach a woman and begin flirtation:

“Remain in your street corner until a woman approaches. Let her walk by. Let a few more women pass. Remember, you’re not desperate… Wait until a woman you really like comes along, and let her go just past the point where she can see you out of the corner of her eye. Break into samba. If your energy is strong, she will perceive your movement with her back and turn around… Wait for another woman. Repeat many times. With any luck, a woman will eventually walk by who turns your spinal column to jelly… If none of this happens, you can always form a circle with the other men and really dance” (98-99).

In both these instructions, Guillermoprieto highlights three important components of the Brazilian samba that will distinguish it from its later cousin, the Dancesport samba. First, he relates that the samba in Brazil is mainly an individual dance performed for an audience or other members of a group, not a partnered dance.  Second, the dance incorporates rapid movement of the hips, arms, torso and demands high levels of awareness and personal interpretation of the music. Finally, one key element of the samba is to flirt, seduce, and attract a partner. These elements will proceed to influence the European translation of the samba, yet most of the individual nature and bodily movement will be recodified into a more “suitable” European context.

Samba’s Translation to Dancesport

Latin and American dances such as the Cha-Cha, Rumba, Samba, and Jitterbug arrived in Europe through the influx of travelers and soldiers during the First World War. Major European cities, such as London and Paris, became epicenters of informal social dancing where improvisation and social gathering had the greatest influence over execution. This lack of standardization and technique preoccupied English dances teachers, thus inspiring the standardization of Latin and American dancing. Due to England’s long established tradition of standardized ballroom dancing, these dances would be codified and standardized in the same manner as dances like the waltz and tango. Consequently, the European translations of Latin Dances resembled partnered ballroom dances in connection, timing, and variation. New Latin dances were not included in English Style ballroom competitions until the late 1950s. Samba, Rumba, Cha Cha, American jive, and Spanish Paso Doble were grouped into Latin and American dancing, later shortened to Latin American” (McMains, 114). Juliet McMains narrates the Samba’s journey to English dance floors:

“The Latin dances were primarily introduced to the British dancing public through the efforts of a single couple, Doris Lavelle and Pierre Zurcher Margolie, known to most as Monsieur Pierre. Their authority on Latin dancing was attributed to numerous trips to Pas, the portal through which Latin dances were made fashionable in Europe, and later trips to Cuba, Brazil, and New York” (McMains, 114).

More specifically, in 1953 Pierre and Lavelle toured Brazil to invigorate the samba with some “authentic” flavor; supposedly, the pair mixed and matched steps from gafieras and rival samba schools, transcribing the “most ballroom-like and teachable steps” (125).

Problems in Translation

Traditional scholarship, like that of Juliet McMains, has emphasized the hegemonic racial dynamic behind the European translation of Latin American dance. Like most translations of Latin and American dance in Europe, dance teachers expressed concern and the need to stamp out improvisation and distance the dances from their African and African American roots. One would be remiss to ignore the clear racial dynamic of hierarchy and superiority behind this translation, however this is important to consider the nuanced interactions between the two cultures over time and their exchanges manifest in the dance. In reality, dance reveals greater complexities of interactions between cultures, and other sociological and cultural forces are at work in addition to constructs and discrimination of race.

Jane C. Desmond’s article “Embodying Difference: Issues in Dance and Cultural Studies” argues greater meaning behind the translated bodily movement across cultural lines. According to Desmond, “We can analyze how social identities are codified in performance style and how the use of the body in dance is related to, duplicates, contests, amplifies, or exceeds norms of nondance bodily expression within specific historical contexts” (Desmond, 33). In other words, the European translation of samba would more closely incorporate European style, posture, and movement versus movement more intrinsic to Latin Americans. For example, as mentioned by Guillermoprieto, the Brazilian samba utilizes “a slouching posture” for the man, yet this motion does not coincide with traditional European posture that associates prestige and sophistication with upright posture. This example highlights complications that arise from differing embedded movements and mannerisms inscribed in the expression of the body across cultures. Desmond tells us that “movement style is an important mode of distinction between social groups and is usually learned or passively absorbed in the home” (Desmond, 36). Therefore, the European-raised adult would find it terribly difficult to absorb and learn the latent, instinctual movements, variations, and gestures of the Brazilian adult while dancing the samba.  As McMains eloquently states,

Despite [Pierre and Lavelle’s] efforts to study the Latin dances in indigenous contexts and to translate their observations into a teaching system faithful to their observations, drastic reinterpretation was unavoidable. A dance practice is much more than a list of footsteps and rhythm charts. The cultural and values of its practitioners are embedded in the postures, gestures, and dynamics of the dance. It was impossible for a single European couple, who were themselves foreigners to Latin culture, to transmit the choreographic and social essences of several different Latin cultures to an entire British culture” (McMains, 114).

This resulting disconnect between native, informal learning and imported, exotic dance forms, became the main driving force behind the strict standardization of the ballroom samba. Moreover, another factor greatly influencing the standardization was European dancing’s past traditions of precision, technique, and standardization. Dance styles, most importantly classical ballet, in Europe to date have a long engrained tradition of codification and strict maintenance from variation. Europe was very much a land where “dancing incorrectly” was possible, whereas in Latin America people rarely interpreted music “incorrectly” (usually the interpretation is either good or bad).

Dance teachers like Pierre, Lavelle, and Walter Laird worked hard throughout the late 50s and early 60s to establish the International Samba syllabus to the ISTD syllabi. This syllabus still remains today, and is used by dance instructors globally. Using just one movement as an example, the reverse turn demonstrates some to the major translations behind the Dancepsort Samba.  As previously mentioned, Pierre and Lavelle tried to incorporate the most ballroom-like steps into their translation of the samba; the reverse turn is actually a step borrowed from the ballroom dance, the Viennese Waltz. Page fourteen of the syllabus describes the strict foot patterns, placements, direction and timing of the movement. It also states that the movement may utilize two of the three stated syllabus timings of the samba; the syllabus regulates that the samba may be counted 1 a 2, Slow-Quick-Quick (SQQ), or 1-2-3 (ISTD Syllabus, 3).  The syllabus clearly states that normal bounce action should be used for the reverse turn. Normal bounce action is described below:

“The normal bounce action, which is so characteristic of the samba , can briefly be described as a flexing of the knees on the first ½ of the beat and a slight straightening on the second ½ of the beat. Normal bounce is created by the use of the knee, ankle and instep of the leg supporting most of the weight, the other knee working in sympathy. It is even, smooth, and subtle, and never exaggerated. Bounce is not used in timing that uses a ‘Quick’” (ISTD Syllabus, 7).

From this interpretation, we can observe the importance of step pattern, timing, and leg action employed by European dance instructors when teaching the Dancesport samba. These basic movements, like the reverse turn, would form the foundation of open choreography of the samba in Dancesport competition. In the late 190s, most Dancesport Latin competition featured very syllabus-based choreography, incorporating very basic movements from the syllabus onto the floor. The video “1962 Blackpool Latin” demonstrates this early form of competition and choreography. Although the samba is not pictured, one can see the use of basic movements, like under arm turns, to embody competition choreography drafted directly from the syllabus. Moreover, these competitions were not as wide scale to be held in neither grand venues nor large ballrooms. Most strikingly, costuming for these competitions represented traditional European formal wear of tails suits for gentleman and long dresses for ladies.

As Dancesport competition popularized in the 70s and 80s, the syllabus was still used in great part to determine choreography. In affect, the samba looked more “European” than ever, heavily influenced by surrounding popular culture of music like disco and dances like the hustle. In 1979, Alan and Hazel Fletcher of England were crowned World Latin Champions, and their exhibition video begins with a samba highly characteristic of the period. Firstly, the setting of the competition reflects the expanded international nature of the competition; it is held in a stadium-like ballroom and the competition occurs in Germany. In addition, the costumes maintain their western, more European style, yet the costumes are much more stylized and resemble fashion of the time; the rhinestones and sequins also make the dancers shine, evoking mystic and glamour. In terms of technique and choreography, this samba is very light in terms of contact with the floor. The bounce is created from compression in the knee and ankle, yet not pelvis or torso movement follow. This is demonstrated in 0:12- 0:14s with the boto fogo of the pair in what is called right shadow position. The reach line of the lady is very stylized (0:17s) just for show, and is not characteristic of samba’s Latin origins. The natural roll, another syllabus movement, with SQQ timing is very ballroom in hold and position of the bodies (0:20-0:26s). Probably the most comedic of the choreography is the apart dancing, which is very high off the floor, uses very light touching of the feet (0:30-0:37s). Lastly, as demonstrated in the apart dancing, arm styling was used to create shape and volume and shape for the couple, not complex body move like that described by Guillermoprieto. What appears in most contrast from the Brazilian samba is the choice of music for the dance. This music, although written in the required 2/4 composition, is produced live by an electric keyboard and is missing the essential percussion instruments that give the samba its full bodied projection.

In the early 90s, Dancesport Latin was reinvigorated with technique and choreography that was truer to that Latin Rhythms produced in Latin America. Visionaries like Alan Tornsberg (Denmark) and Paul Killick (Great Britain) revolutionized Latin Ballroom with choreography ad style that appreciated the complexity of the rhythms and interpreted those rhythms with greater movement of the body. As demonstrated in Alan Tornsberg (Denmark) and Vibeke Toft (Denmark)’s Samba (circa. 1996), the movement in general resembles more closely the complex movement cited by Guillermopietro. The apart dancing (0:22-0:42) is similar to the flirtatious interaction described by Guillermopietro between man and woman. Moreover, this apart work demonstrates the individual voices and skills of the man and lady, much like the different gendered versions of Brazilian samba.

The most striking innovation demonstrated by this couple is the interpretation of the rhythm in their bodies. This movement is less conservative than that of Alan and Hazel Fletcher, and integrates bodily movements similar to the Brazilian samba. The samba bounce is activated from the knees and ankles, as dictated on the syllabus, but the pelvis plays a crucial role in this activation. The legs and knees never pass each other without the activation of the pelvis tilted upward and forward. This is colloquially called the “pelvic tilt” in the Dancesport world. As commented by Desmond, the “so-called desexualization [of the early European translations] often involved the usage of the pelvis” (40). In contrast, innovators like Alan Tornsberg bring the pelvis back into the technique of the samba in order to produce more interpretation of the rhythm within the core of the body. This use of the pelvis is much more closely related to the Brazilian Samba than the lighter, looser bounce utilized by the Fletchers. In terms of choreography, Alan and Vibeke use less ballroom-like variations and bring more variations to the floor that resemble Brazilian movements. At twenty-seven seconds (0:27) Alan executes is called the batucada that is very Brazilian and less ballroom, using quick footwork and ample hip and pelvis action. The arms also respond as a reaction to the movement of his body, unlike the arm styling of the Fletchers.

Alan and Vibeke continue to coach and adjudicate in the Dancesport world today, and their contributions can be seen in the work of contemporary couples like those featured in the IDSF World Amateur Latin Championship in 2004. The IDSF uses a solo dance for each couple to assist the judges in comparing each couple’s strengths, weaknesses, and individual style. Not only does this video display the current international quality of Dancesport today, but it demonstrates International Dancesport’s incorporation of authentic, or more closely authentic, Latin music for competition. Karen Hardy, former World Champion and commentator, tells us “the music is telling us it’s carnival” at the beginning, and the use of the popular samba “Marchina” provides the dancers with more of the complex percussion and variation of sound typical of Brazilian carnival samba.

Russians Denis Kusnetsov and Maria Tzaptachvilli begin with very heavy gyration and seductive glances at each other, like a couple attracting each other at carnival. Maria’s first boto fogo uses more hip and body action when compared to Hazel’s first boto fogo from 1979 (0:22). This samba is very precise and sharp, yet the bounce actions are clearly executed and contained within the body. Danish pair Peter and Christina Stokkebroe  use varying timings to show the complexity of the samba music; at first with their  slow voltas, then a slow beginning to the promenade runs (1:36, 1:49). Their voltas use the hips and pelvis in a circular, full bodied rotation. Their samba rolls, although interestingly exited, demonstrate the change in samba rolls from the rolls done by the Fletchers. The positioning is changed from close postion, similar to the ballroom dances, and changed to right shadow position. As commented by Karen Hardy, they require maximum body contact. In addition, this position is more similar to a couple meeting for the first time at carnival versus a polite distanced ballroom frame. Maurizio Vescovo and Melinda Törökgyörgy demonstrate this movement beautifully, demonstrating the need for maximum body contact in order to interpret the Slow-Quick-Quick (SQQ) timing of the music (3:29).  Klaus Kongsdal and Victoria Franova from Denmark best demonstrate the grounded, “heavy” samba that has come to fashion today (7:13-7:25). An excellent way to demonstrate the rapid movement of the body in response to the complexity of the samba music is to ground the on the floor so each intricate movement can be visible. This method is very similar to the grounded nature of the movement described by Guillermopietro.

The Dancesport samba has continually changed over decades, incorporating much of the same ideas rooted in the Brazilian samba. Although the Dancesport samba will probably never fully embrace the Brazilian tradition and codified movement of the samba, this evolution of the translation of Dancesport demonstrates Desmond’s principle of dance as a method to discuss dialogue between two social groups. There is a clear dialogue between the samba’s traditions in Brazil and the European translation of samba in Dancesport. This dialogue uses dance to facilitate the study of Latin America’s dialogue with the rest of the world. For the future, in a transatlantic and continually expanding global community, dance can be just one facet to study the how the culture, legacy, and tradition of Latin America is dispersed and interpreted throughout the world, revealing a greater understanding and varying definition of Latin America in the global community.

*****

Works Cited:

“Allan Tornsberg and Vibeke Toft Samba” 14 May 2010.
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y5UIfOTQ3G4&playnext_from=TL&videos=-LAbFfNldO8  >

“Apolo Anton Ohno & Julianne- Samba (full clip)” 10 May 2010.
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i25nF5luJhY>

Delgado, Celeste Fraser and Muñoz José Esteban. “Rebellions of Everynight Life” in Everynight

Life: Culture and Dance in Latin/o America. Duke University Press, 1997.

Desmond, Jane C. “Embodying Difference: Issues in Dance and Cultural Studies” in Everynight Life: Culture and Dance in Latin/o America. Duke University Press, 1997.

Guillermopietro, Alma. Samba. Published by Alfred A. Knope, Inc. New York: 1990.

“IDSF World Amateur Latin 2004 Samba Solos” 14 May 2010

McMains, Juliet. Glamour Addiction: Inside the American Ballroom Dance Industry. Wesleyan University Press. Middletown, Connecticut: 2006.

“World Latin Champions Latin American Alan & Hazel Fletcher” 14 May 2010.

“1962 Blackpool Professional Latin” 14 May 2010.